The Marco Polo Bridge Incident refers to a clash that occurred between the Chinese and Japanese armies in 1937. This clash was the result of Japan’s expansion into Chinese territory, as well as the resentment of the Chinese populace towards the increasing presence of Japanese soldiers in China. This dispute escalated into a full-scale war between the two sides, which lasted for 8 years and involved approximately 10 million soldiers from both sides. The conflict resulted in the deaths of over 22 million individuals, with the majority being Chinese civilians. The Japanese side suffered approximately 2.1 million casualties, while the Chinese side lost around 3.2 million individuals.
Causes of the Conflict
After the Japanese Empire seized control of the region of Manchuria in northeastern China in 1931 and established the puppet state of Manchukuo, it aimed to further expand its territory within China and Southeast Asia. This expansion led to growing unease among Chinese nationalists, particularly concerning the presence of Japanese forces exceeding the agreed-upon quota along the railways between Beijing and the port of Tianjin, as specified in the Boxer Protocol of 1901, signed between China and a coalition of eight nations.
The Boxer Protocol was established following the Boxer Rebellion, a peasant uprising in northern China that relied on ancient spiritual, physical, and martial arts techniques for self-defense against Western imperial powers and Japan. The rebellion, which began in the late 19th century, was directed against Western imperial powers as well as Japan. The rebels perceived Western powers as interfering with the Buddhist fabric of the country through the activities of Western Christian missionaries, who had successfully converted millions of Chinese to Christianity. Additionally, they saw Japan as seeking to gain commercial and economic dominance in China.
The aftermath of the rebellion resulted in significant human losses among the rebels, Chinese Christians, and a limited number of international forces known as the Eight-Nation Alliance, led by British General Alfred Gaselee, which consisted of troops from Japan, Russia, Britain, France, the United States, Germany, Austria, and Hungary. The international forces entered Beijing, the capital of the Chinese empire, in August 1900, and on September 7, 1901, China was compelled to sign the Boxer Protocol, agreeing to pay $333 million to the Eight-Nation Alliance, in addition to committing to execute 10 senior leaders of the rebellion.
The War Begins
On the night of July 7, 1937, a Japanese military unit stationed near the Fengtai district border conducted a military exercise. This unit was targeted by gunfire, leading to skirmishes near Wanping, 16 kilometers southwest of Beijing. Upon their return to their base, the Japanese noticed the absence of soldier Shimura Kikorijiro. They requested permission from the Chinese military to enter Wanping to search for their missing comrade. When their request was denied, the Japanese began to gather more forces near Wanping and threatened military intervention.
In response, General Feng Zhian, commander of the 37th Infantry Brigade of the Chinese forces stationed near Wanping, ordered his troops to be on high alert in anticipation of a possible Japanese attack. During these events, the Japanese were surprised by the return of Shimura Kikorijiro, who confirmed that he had lost his way from the Japanese army’s route and had returned safely to his base.
However, Shimura Kikorijiro’s return did not suffice to diffuse the crisis. Tensions escalated between the Japanese and Chinese, reaching a breaking point. At 5 am the following day, a Chinese military unit opened fire on Japanese soldiers stationed at the Marco Polo Bridge and the nearby railway site.
Subsequently, the mayor, Wang Lengzai, observed a large gathering of Japanese forces around Wanping upon his return to the city following a negotiation meeting. Just five minutes later, the mayor witnessed Chinese artillery shells falling on the Japanese side.
These events, historically known as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, evolved into a full-fledged military conflict between China and Japan, lasting over 8 years and resulting in millions of casualties.
This incident marked the beginning of the full-scale Chinese resistance war against Japanese aggression, following Japan’s occupation of the resource-rich Manchuria in northeastern China at the beginning of 1931.
The Salvation of the Communist Party
Significantly, this incident represented a vital and essential turning point for the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under the leadership of Mao Zedong. At that time, the emerging and small party faced severe opposition from Chinese nationalist parties and was confined to limited areas in northwestern China.
Initially, the nationalist leader and head of the Manchurian government, Zhang Kaixi, downplayed the severity of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and was unwilling to allow the Communist forces to operate independently. However, by the end of July 1937, as the situation escalated, he agreed to reorganize the Communist forces to establish a legitimate military under independent leadership in exchange for their rapid deployment against the Japanese forces in the north.
In September 1937, Zhang conceded to the formation of a united front, acknowledging the legitimacy of the CCP and its government, granting it legal control in certain areas. This move was an attempt to accelerate the spread of Communist forces against the Japanese. These concessions significantly facilitated the subsequent expansion of the CCP.
Once the Communists obtained substantial concessions, including the promise of legitimacy, their military strategy shifted to guerrilla warfare in the mountains to maintain and bolster the party’s military strength against nationalist parties. This strategy, coupled with massive recruitment efforts, saw the CCP increase its membership from approximately 30,000 at the start of the war to around 800,000 by 1940, forming an army comprising approximately 500,000 soldiers.
The Occupation of Shanghai and the Nanjing Massacre
In early August 1937, Chinese resistance in Shanghai and its outskirts attempted to halt the rapid advancement of Japanese forces to provide the central government with time to transport defensive supplies into inland China. The Chinese managed to inflict some losses on the Japanese. Approximately one million soldiers participated in the Battle of Shanghai from both sides.
However, the second phase of the battle, from the end of August until October, witnessed a Japanese amphibious assault, accompanied by intense air, naval, and artillery bombardments. Fierce battles ensued between the forces until the Chinese resistance withdrew at the end of November 1937, leading to the fall of Shanghai and its surroundings into the hands of the Japanese.
In late 1937, over a period of six weeks, Japanese forces killed hundreds of thousands of soldiers and civilians in the Chinese city of Nanjing. This event is known as the “Nanjing Massacre.”
The Japanese army entered the city, led by General Matsui Iwane, on December 13, 1937, and proceeded to slaughter thousands of Chinese soldiers, massacre entire families, rape women, leaving bodies scattered across the streets, and looted and burned a third of the city’s buildings.
The Final Stage and the Liberation of Manchuria
In early 1940, the Japanese army, observing the expanding ranks of the Communists, initiated military mopping-up operations in the countryside, particularly in the north, in an attempt to uproot the Red Army and its supporters. In response, the Communists adopted a new strategy known as the “Hundred Regiments Offensive.”
This coordinated and wide-ranging offensive targeted cities under Japanese control and their railway lines. Although the offensive succeeded in damaging some of the Japanese infrastructure and bases, the retaliatory destruction by the Japanese was much more significant.
Capitalizing on the vulnerabilities left by the Japanese, particularly after the withdrawal of some of their forces deployed in China to other fronts in the Pacific, the Communists shifted to an offensive position and extended their control along the railway lines and small cities.
The CCP leadership in Yan’an issued instructions to prepare for Soviet-style operations against Japan and regain control of Manchuria from the north. A statement released on August 10, 1945, called for the immediate disarmament of Japanese forces and the seizure of cities and transportation in the event of an anticipated Japanese surrender.
The following day, the party headquarters instructed the Red Army to advance towards the northeast. During this critical period, with the support and protection of the Soviet Union, the CCP established a strong foothold in the northeast.
Human Casualties
This war resulted in the deaths of over 22 million individuals, with the majority being Chinese civilians. Approximately 10 million soldiers from both sides participated in the conflict, with around 2.1 million Japanese casualties and 3.2 million Chinese casualties. This war became a prime example of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
